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Auto Industry: Macroeconomic Considerations Before Business Expansion (Term Paper Sample) Content: Auto industry: Macroeconomic considerations before business expansion.Studentà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬s NameInstitutionCourseIntroductionThe auto industry is an important industry, in the past it has contributed about 3 to 3.5 percent to the overall GDP (Gross Domestic Product). The auto industry employs people engaged in engineering, designing, manufacturing, parts and components manufacturing and sell and service of vehicles. The industry is also a huge consumer of services and goods from other sectors (Ballew Schnorbus, 1994). According to a report by the federal Bureau of Labor Statistics in October 2010, the number of people employed in auto and parts manufacturing as well as dealerships was more than 3.3 million. The auto industry faced tough times during the period between 2008 and 2010, the period was characterized by extremely tight credit has made it impossible for companies and consumers to make investments. Many manufacturers, suppliers and dealerships were fighting f or survival in the industry.In the past two decades the auto industry has seen a transformation with the domestic assembly plants have slowly losing their market share in United States to international firms like Honda, Toyota and Hyundai. By the end of 2009 the market share of the three main domestic auto manufacturers was just below 4.2 perc(U.S Department of commerce: bureau of economic analysis 2010).Macro economic analysis of the Auto industryThe health of the economy is crucial for the health of the auto industry. Monetary policy and fiscal policy set the tone for the economy. Low interest rates make car more affordable, meaning more people are able to purchase cars and subsequently increased demand. The effect is more auto jobs. If interest rates are high, the demand decreases and auto jobs are fewer. This decreases the taxes paid by the industry and increases unemployment insurance payouts, both of which affect fiscal policy (Helmut, 1994).Throughout history the auto indust ry is characterized by its production rates cycling through different business phases. When the industry is experiencing expansion the economy at that time is usually stable the auto vehicles manufacturers and parts manufacturers are able to invest more capital to meet the increased demand. This time of expansion also contributes to increased employment in the industry. At peak of the expansion stage the demand becomes higher than the economyà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬s ability to supply, product and labor shortages are usually evident. On the other hand when the economy is experiencing a decrease in real GDP the auto industry undergoes a period of contraction and recession. Firms in the industry start facing decreased profits, unwanted inventories, postponed investment and the need to lay off employees. The cycle is repeated because when the interest rates are lower again and the GDP improves the consumers begin to satisfy their pent-up demand that they were holding during the recession. A recover y of the auto industry business cycle only occurs when the business activity and GDP returns to its previous peak.The performance of any industry is dependent on interest rates. Consumers are more willing to borrow to satisfy their current needs when the interest rates are low. Businesses are also more willing to borrow in order to invest towards the growth of the company when interest rates are low. Increased interest rates results in decline in production rates and real GDP.Over the years it can be noted that the peaks and troughs in the auto industryà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬s production rates occurs during the peak and troughs of the economyà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬s real GDP. In USA the auto industry contributes about three percent of the economyà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬s GDP however the influence it makes towards economic change is about forty percent. This shows that durable goods are affected by and also affect the economic activity of a country.Other factors affecting the auto industry are the unemployment rates and inflation rates. There is a direct relationship between unemployment and inflation. Higher rates of unemployment correlate with lower rates of inflation. Increased unemployment reduces the ability to buy especially non essential goods like automobiles. Unemployment imposes many costs to society (Shedlock, 2010). When the auto sales are positive the employment rates in the industry also increase, the vice versa is also true. Technological advances have also reduced the amount of people the industry can employ at any given time.Current Macroeconomic situationDuring the economic downturn businesses had to reduce inventories and slash pay rolls as a result of severe liquidity crisis and deleveraging of the financial markets. The reduction in spending and reduced demand for goods and services was accelerated by frozen credit markets. This resulted to further layoffs and further increase in recession. Today, the economic situation in United States of America is improving.ÂThe GDP is rising and the economic data shows a positive trend. There has been a noticeable and sustainable improvement in the labor market. From the second half of 2013, Real GDP growth has been increasing to a more three percent annual rate.The unemployment rate has reduced, with on average180, 000 new jobs a month being created over the past six months. Indicators of the improving labor market are that workersà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬ perception of job availability has improved and the increased willingness of workers to quit the current job. The Auto Industry auto manufactures and parts manufactures now employs 826,000 workers, in the past four years more than 173,000 jobs according to U.S federal jobs report 2013. Although these figures are still below the 1.1million workers employed in the industry before the recession it is still a vital positive change.The accommodative monetary and fiscal policies are the two most important factors that have led to the improved economy. In the past few years when the economy was dragging the fiscal policy at the time was the cause. The fiscal policy was compounded by uncertainty, making people less willing and more cautious to make new commitments. People stopped spending on other things but necessities. This situation was further compounded by the increase in tax. The increased uncertainty caused by the fiscal policy resulted in an increase in unemployment rate by 1.25 percent translating to two million lost jobs as at late 2012 according to economists at Federal Reserve Bank of San Francisco (Leduc and Zheng, 2013). In December 2013 the Federal Reserve laid out a clear monetary policy that led to increased consumer confidence and reduced uncertainty.The U.S economy is still operating below capacity since the GDP is still low and the unemployment rate still high relative to its potential. The global economic situation has made the US dollar to appreciate and the import prices to be low (Gordon, 2013). The economic struggle of other countri es characterized by downward pressure on inflation is holding down the import price inflation in the United States. Even though there was economic improved in the United States in 2013 the import prices fell by over one percent. There is hope however that the foreign markets will strengthen and the downward pressure from import prices will reduce. If this happens then the inflation will come up to the targeted two percent over the next few years.The monetary policy needs to remain accommodative since there is still high unemployment and low inflation. The federal funds rate is the primary conventional policy too which serves as a benchmark for short term market interest rates. Since December 2008 the fund rates have been lowered to near zero as the recession and financial crisis intensified. The government started providing forward guidance about the future trajectory fed funds rate in order to ensure lowered fund rates translated into longer term interest rates (Potter, 2013). Sin ce late 2008 there has been a large scale asset purchase program. The latest round of this started in September 2012, where there was a eighty five billion purchase of combined long term Treasury and Mortgage backed securities each month at its peak. In December 2012 FOMC meeting, they outlined their plans to keep funds rate at zero lower bound. These plans are until the unemployment rate reduces to 6.5 percent (Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System, 2013)Post Recession DemographicsThe recession period reshaped the automobile industry over the past few years. The auto industry is faced with a new post recession mindset of consumers, demographic ships and how auto manufacturers respond to these changes. What the consumers are expecting from the manufacturers may have changed. The recession, according to Jim Farley the Executive Vice President of Global Marketing, Sales and Services of Ford at the 2013 New York International Auto Show, has changed how consumers make purc hase decisions and hat they look for in motor vehicles.Luxury vehicles for example are no longer being defined by exclusivity, size and price rather people are associating luxury with performance, quality and features. In a survey for example sixty percent of the respondents expected a luxury car to cost about sixty thousand far less than the former expected one hundred luxury vehicle price tag. There is also a significant shift in the market with women, Hispanics and Millennials transforming the market. The most powerful trend is the global increasing consumer power of women. Women are trading agricultural work with businesses and professions drawing women into cities all over the world. In United States women are outpacing men. The Hispanic householdsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬ net worth has increased over the years, Hispanics have a known reputation of buying luxury vehicles at a faster rate than the overall market.The greatest demogr...

The Argument Against The Mass Amnesty Of The Millions Of...

THE CASE AGAINST AMNESTY 2 Abstract Within the confines of this essay lies the argument against the mass amnesty of the millions of illegal immigrants. This conclusion came to fruition through the use of the many sources at the disposal of anybody who can use a database. The topics that will be touched upon will include the evidence regarding the diversion of tax money and the amount of tax revenue that would be returned to the United States by the newly welcomed migrants, the costs of educating their children, the influx of crime caused by these individuals, a review of constitutional law and the ways in which it is involved, and a surprising, yet humanitarian angle to the side against amnesty regarding the methods of detainment used by the current centers that are in place and the inhumane treatment contained within those walls. A fair but firm criticism of the opposition will be taken as the major points behind their argument are systematically taken apart and discussed in length, yet, near the end, those points wil l be shown in a light that will not validate, but show these points to noble in their aim and explain why these points, while noble, are incapable of producing the results that the opposition would like to obtain. Keywords: Immigration, Reform, Illegal Immigrants. THE CASE AGAINST AMNESTYShow MoreRelatedLegalization For Hard Working Immigrants890 Words   |  4 Pagessparked various arguments between Americans. No agreement has been reached regarding immigration reform, possibly because many people view it as an immediate amnesty rather than a possibility of legalization for hard-working immigrants. Despite of the negative meaning associated with it, an immigration reform would be beneficial to the U.S. in social aspects, such as having undivided families, and by stimulating economic growth. 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Immigrants have provided many things such as customs, manufacturing, inventions, and entertainment. Many people today don t realize how greatly we have been affected by immigration. Before the era of rapid communications and transportation, America encouraged relatively open immigration to settle its empty lands. Over many years, the policies have changed and become more difficult for immigrants and their families. Too often do families get separatedRead MoreAsian And Latino Persons Are Still Treated As Racial Outsiders2385 Words   |  10 Pagesstill treated as racial outsiders within the United States, she is referring to the America’s treatment of these minority groups throughout history and today. For instance, the labor of both groups of immigrants have continually exploited as they sought the rumored opportunity of our â€Å"nation of immigrants.† Historical examples would include the Asian population that played a key role in the Central Pacific Railroad and the Latino population that continues to be utilized by farmers to supplement an AmericanRead MoreIllegal Immigration1709 Words   |  7 PagesIllegal Immigration: The Undocumented Issue In this paper I will discuss one of the biggest issues in the United States: Illegal immigrants. Some may say that illegal immigration has a positive impact on the United States’ economy, and some think that these undocumented immigrants affect jobs and wages of people that are living in this country. I think that illegal immigrants harm the United States’ economy through their use of our country’s social services such as health care, education and

The French and Indian War Essay - 823 Words

The French and Indian War was a conflict in North America in which Great Britain fought France and their Native American allies. It lasted from 1756 until 1763, so it was also known as the Seven Years War. At the peace conference in 1763, the British received Canada from France and Florida from Spain, but permitted France to keep its West Indian sugar islands and gave Louisiana to Spain. The treaty strengthened the American colonies significantly by removing their European rivals to the north and south and opening the Mississippi Valley to westward expansion. The war began as disputes over land between British colonists, officials, and the Iroquois Confederacy who were against the French and their Native American allies. The Iroquois†¦show more content†¦In July 1758, the British won their first major victory at Louisbourg, near the mouth of the St. Lawrence River. Within a month, they took Fort Frontenac at the western end of the river. Then they arrived at Quebec, where G eneral James Wolfe won another important victory in the Plains of Abraham in September 1759. However, both he and the French commander, the Marquis de Montcalm, died soon after the battle. When the British captured Montreal in September 1760, the French lost their last foothold in Canada. Soon, Spain decided to help France fight against England, and throughout the rest of the war Britain focused on capturing French and Spanish territories in other places throughout the world. The cost of funding the war was so massive that the ensuing debt nearly destroyed the British government. This debt caused most of the grievances between the British and the colonists, eventually leading to the Revolutionary War. This resource loss had a massive impact on Britain. The outcome of the war never truly made up for the resources the British had to use to win, so they had to find another way to make up for the lost funds. This was achieved by taxing the colonies on many types of goods. The first thing Britain wanted to do was stop illegal smuggling. They attempted to do this through the Sugar Act. The Sugar Act, created by George Grenville, actually lowered the tax onShow MoreRelatedThe French And Indian War1095 Words   |  5 PagesThe French and India war was a war that took place in today’s Pittsburgh. The war was both caused by the English and French. The English and the French both felt that they were entitled to land and each was to willing to fight and they were also, willing to go into war so they could prove that they owned the land. 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Following the war the British governmentRead MoreThe French And Indian War895 Words   |  4 PagesMany wars were fought between the English and the French. The French and Indian War was an important factor in the writing of the Declaration of Independence. The war was very costly for the British. After the war ended the British thought of ways to gain money from the colonists to help replenish funds lost from the war. This usually was in the form of taxes. The colonists were not happy with the British government and made their fee lings and opinions known. The colonists wanted their freedom andRead MoreThe French And Indian War938 Words   |  4 PagesThe French and Indian War was a long and bloody war fought by both colonial and British soldiers. By the end of the war, both Britain and the colonies were changed, and so their relationships were changed as well - mostly in negative ways. After the war, political, ideological and economic relations between the colonies and Britain would never be the same. Many colonists realizing their lack of representation in Parliament, which created political tension; British taxation of the colonies createdRead MoreThe French And Indian War1556 Words   |  7 Pages The French and Indian War/Seven Years War began in response to the British unapologetically impinging on the French and the Indian territory. After the seven years of war, the French and British negotiated the Treaty of Paris. The Treaty of Paris effectively ended the French and Indian War/the Seven Years War. It was put into practice in 1763. The immediate results included the French loss of all territory in the Americas except some islands in the Gulf, the Spanish receiving all land west of theRead MoreThe French And Indian War1731 Words   |  7 PagesAmerican Revolution was fought from 1775-1783, the war happened because of the tension that was building between Great Britain and their thirteen colonies. From 1607 to 1763, Britain gave the thirteen colonies benign and salutary neglect. Even though the colonists lived under the Mercantilist doctrine, they were still allowed to prosper while under Great Britain’s authority. The French and Indian war changed their relationshi p.Great Britain going to war with France caused them to accumulate a lot ofRead MoreThe French And Indian War1337 Words   |  6 Pagesbeen many wars, some wars were fought for world domination and others were fought for independence. One war that fought for independence was the American Revolution. The American Revolution was fought between the colonists and the English with the French aiding the colonists. There are many causes for the American Revolution some of the causes are the French and Indian War, The Sugar and Stamp Act, The Boston Massacre, The Boston Tea Party, and the Intolerable Acts. The French and Indian War, also calledRead MoreThe French And Indian War1183 Words   |  5 Pages1773 Britain defeated France in the French and Indian war.The colonists had secretly been bringing in tea into the area from dutch, the tea was cheaper and not taxed, this helped many families in America. It caused parliament to be short of money. In effort to replenish. Victory in the french and indian war was costly for the british. At war’s conclusion in 1763, king George 111 and his government looked to taxing the American colonies as a way of recouping their war cost, they thought that people want

Catch 22 Essay College Thesis Example For Students

Catch 22 Essay College Thesis I would have to say that Joseph Hellers Catch-22, was at least enjoyable to read. There were several aspects about it that made it good and bad at the same time. First, I think the most important thing aspect to look at, is that Heller makes death, a traditionally sickening topic, a humorous event. It is humorous because of the way he illustrates who is crazy. I assumed that Yossarian was the insane one in the beginning. Now, I cant say that I am sure. I like how this book makes the reader think. Who really is crazy Does anyone know Yossarian is doing anything he needs to, to survive. Does that make him insane In my eyes, e is living on instincts, the way he should. The threat of death keeps him going. He is not insane. So who is insane, the reader, the writer I dont feel that I can answer that. If anything, I think all of the above. It is neat to see how one would act when faced with death. I think what Heller was trying to say is that when someone knows they are dying, nothing makes sense to them. When we see people that know they are dying, we think that they dont make sense. So, we cant really know who is making sense. Its very tricky in that way. This at least kept me awake and thinking while reading it. I think the ain conflict of the story, was between humanity and the rules. We are forced to do something by law then we pay the ultimate price for it. The best part is that we do it all for the idea that we are protecting those laws. The idea of a Catch-22 is interesting. Its like saying, A person has the right to do anything that another person cannot stop them from doing. This catch appears throughout the entire book. It was quite evident when the Italian woman is talking about the Military Police. It is also clearly evident when Yossarian is walking down the stairs. He is cursing Catch-22, although he doesnt believe n it. There is no real explanation for Catch-22, thats the catch. It can only be defined as Catch-22. When Yossarian discusses with Colonels Cathcart and Korn, it is easy to see the Catch-22. This situation shows that a Catch-22 causes a person to betray all the values that they have. All this time, Ive been trying to explain what I feel about the book, when I dont know how I feel. This Catch-22 is so strange that my thoughts about it keep changing as I type, changing the way I feel about the book as a whole. Its very odd. I liked the book, but the ideas in it are so marveling that Im not sure what to think. How Heller wrote this impresses me. His use of the Character Yossarian causes the reader to examine oneself, and also examine the idea of insanity. Overall, Id have to say that this book is definitely good to read, but my feelings are still questionable. I hate to see a book such as this go to waste in the end, lie so many others. There is no reason for it to end this way. It just shows a lack of imagination. There is no sense of individuality in the books ending. IT was simply bad guy dies and loses. There is nothing that is different from any other form of book All of the above stated things are true.

Security Policies in HATI

Employees of HATI may abuse their privileges. This leads to the emergence of the first vulnerability for this organization that occur in cases where these employees perform other functions, which are beyond their job responsibilities. On the same note, HATI employees may share classified information for the organization with third parties.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Security Policies in HATI specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Moreover, HATI organization may face platform vulnerabilities for its laptops. Such situation leads to denial of services, corruption of data, or even unauthorized access to data (Cybercrime, 2012). An example of this is the â€Å"Blaster Worm†, which may deny the organization services in case the laptops have Windows 2000 as their operating system. Database communication protocols are also vulnerabilities for HATI Company. Figure 1: Vulnerabilities to an Organization SQL injectio n attack is one threat, which HATI organization may experience while performing its functions. SQL injection creates an opportunity for the attackers to access the whole database for an organization. HATI may also have a weak audit trail, which indicates that the organization may have higher risks in several levels, which include detection and recovery, deterrence, and regulatory risk. Furthermore, HATI may have a Denial of Service (DOS) attack, which may be created by several vulnerabilities. DOS techniques include network flooding and corruption of data among others (NIST, 2007). Finally, weak authentication for the database, as well as exposure of the back-up data for the database is a threat, which HATI organization may face while conducting its financial transactions. Personal opinion on the risks, which HATI faces, is that denial of service; weak authentication of database, privilege abuse, and weak audit trail of all data processes are the significant risks to the organizatio n. If the organization cannot control these risks it will eventually collapse due to the fact that the organization will incur losses, be attacked, and lose confidential data. Figure 1 shows how the organization may be at a risk because of a threat.Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More HATI has an opportunity of using query-level access control (QLAC) as a measure of eliminating the vulnerabilities of employees’ privileges abuse. QLAC illustrates a mechanism, which has the power to restrict privileges of the database to the minimum operations of the SQL, as well as data. This mechanism has the ability of issuing an alert in case an employee is engaged in malicious activities. However, this mechanism needs to use SecureSphere’s Dynamic Profiling Technology, which enables the creation of various algorithms that contribute to the generation of query-level usage profile s for the organization employees (Perrin, 2009). In addition, HATI should develop a database access control which limits unspecified access to the database. HATI may also adopt intrusion prevention systems (IPS), which aid in the inspection of database traffic of any potential vulnerability. IPS does this by either blocking access to a procedure that is vulnerable, or procedures, which may result in an attack to the organization (Pfleeger, 2003). The functionality of IPS should be improved by the incorporation of query access control indicators, which determine whether requests correspond to normal behavior of users or not. An IPS has the ability of minimizing attacks as the one indicated in figure 2. Platform attacks for HATI can only be prevented by the adoption of intrusion prevention systems and having regular software updates. This will ensure that vulnerabilities, which the organization may experience over time, are minimized effectively. SQL injection, which may have tremendo us negative impacts on the processes and functions of HATI Company should be combated by combining three techniques, which are event correlation, query-level access control, and intrusion prevention (IPS). Weak authentication and audit of the database activities should be addressed by having a strong authentication and high performance of the auditing platform (Learning Space, 2012). On the same note, Denial of Service (DOS) should be combated by protection of database, applications, and networks. Finally, attack of database communication protocol should be prevented by adaptation of protocol validation measures. Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Security Policies in HATI specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Figure 2: Impact of an attack in an organization Characteristics of a policy statement A policy statement should be clear and easy to understand and should ensure that it delivers its message effectively. Further , the quality for such a statement should be measurable for employees to implement its concept effectively (Shulman, 2006). Moreover, a policy statement should be realistic and useful to an organization. Finally, the objectives of the policy statement should be aligned with the goals of the organization. Policy Statement Purpose: To provide adequate information on the necessity of protecting client and corporate data. Scope: This policy is applicable to all employees of HATI Company involved in the process of handling both client and corporate data. Henry Advanced Technology, Inc. (HATI) recognizes that client and corporate data are vulnerable to various threats. Handling data is a responsibility of each employee in the company since such data may lose its value or worth in case it is tampered with. Therefore, all members must depict higher levels of professionalism and responsibility while handling data for the organization. It is the policy for this company to: Ensure that the sa fety level of both client and corporate data is high. Data is not rendered unusable because of compromising the same. All employees stick to job responsibilities, which they are allocated and handle data at higher confidential levels. Employees do not engage in malicious acts of altering data, which is stored in their laptops. Employees will be held liable for any malicious acts detected while handling either client, or corporate data. Reference List Cybercrime. (2012). Financial Organizations Must Improve Data Security Practices. Web.Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Learning Space. (2012). Threats and Vulnerabilities.  Web. NIST. (2007). National Vulnerability Database (NVD).  Web. Perrin, C. (2009). Understanding Risk, Threat, and Vulnerability.  Web. Pfleeger, C. (2003). Security in Computing (3rd Ed). United States of America: Pearson Education, Inc. Shulman, A. (2006). Top Ten Database Security Threats.  Web. This essay on Security Policies in HATI was written and submitted by user Annabella K. to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Compare and contrast auditory system and optical system

Compare and contrast auditory system and optical system Two of the most important sensory systems in human body are optical system and auditory system. Optical system or sometime called visual system involved in the process of taken amount of stimuli and transfer it into some figure that we can perceive as images that make senses. Auditory systems involved in sound wave that transduced by drum ear into some kind of vibration that eventually gets converted back into wave what we perceive as noise. There are a lot of similarities in their mechanisms of how they gather, carry and prepare those informations from sensory neurons. However, there are also a lots of differences on how each system operated and where does it takes information into difference area of the brain.For both systems, optical and auditory, the information comes from our environment in many forms. For example, optical system detected all still images and image in motion as far as human eyes can see.en:Steps involved in hearing speech: Sound signals...The auditory is ready t o absorb any noise or sound for twenty-four hours a day. Their structures and mechanisms are similar in a way they gather information, prepare and perceive those information into something that make sense in our brain. After the sensory neurons carry information into specific system each detect, transduce and coding those information before they being send to central system, the brain. Both systems have similar structure that transmit those information to the final destination, the brain.Even though, both system basic the same. Each system perceive those information that perceive from sensory neuron in totally different way. For instance, optical system receive visible spectrum of wave of electromagnetic radiation. The frequency of wave created color and distinguish brightness by amplitude. In auditory system, the frequency of wave created tone ( pitch) and loudness by amplitude.For the optical system, the cornea...

Economic Policy of China Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Economic Policy of China - Essay Example The two way trade in China has grown faster than it's GDP for the last quarter of the century. (Ken Davies, 2000) After 1979 the Central - Local Relationship was made flexible: This initiated a loose and decentralized management controls over policy making, resource allocation, production issues (Ravi, 2005). The authority of local government people as well as plant supervisors in the industries were increased through the increment in the autonomy of public enterprises. This encouraged the private sector in the services as well as the light manufacturing industry. Foreign trade and investment was increased through a diversification in the banking systems, development of stock markets, and encouragement of the private enterprises (Baizhu & Feng, 2000). An example of localism is that the central government is subjected to severe budget deficits while revenue generation of local is increasing. The budget stood around -7.0% of GDP in 2006. There has been a trend of changing role of institutions. Structural downsizing of State organs, streamlining departments, and creating institutions like the 'the National Development Planning Commission', 'The State Economic and Trade Commission' and 'Ministry of Commerce' to manage the macroeconomic competitiveness that China is striving to achieve. According to the purchasing parity as it accounted for 12 per cent of global GDP. Ever since the 1980s the real income has grown approximately 400 per cent per head, and the export import has increased 11 to 13 per cent per year. The manufactured goods constitute 90 per cent of the total exports while the ratio of trade-in-goods to GDP today is around 50 per cent. (Sally, 2004) Today not only are the Chinese commodities exported to the world a large amount of foreign commodities pouring into China. During the period 1990 to 2001, the world's exports were growing at the rate of 6.3% while in China the exports experienced at 14.9% growth. The import growth rate was 6.5% on average while China had 15.5%. The Chinese products not only prove to be cheap and efficient but also the foreign companies become price competitive by producing in China. (People's Daily Online, 2003) China's trade liberalism is directly linked to the open investment policies. In 2002 the Foreign Direct Investment was $450 million from $90 million in 1990. It represented 36% GDP of China whereas 6% of the world's total. Most of the FDI stock comes from the manufacturing sector which constitutes about 7% of the world's overall manufacturing. (Sally, 2004) Despite all the good things about the openness of trade there have been some major macro economic issues that the country is currently facing today. The first is the external debt issue. In 2005 the three main indicators of external debt were way below the internationally accepted line; this is an alarming situation for a country like China. The external debt as compared to the GDP was 12.63%. Another issue is the public debt. China's public debt was 22.1% of total GDP (2006). In 2005 Standard and Poor's revised China's credit ratings saying that China had come out of the instability and made progressive reforms and successfully implemented them. The rating increased to A- from BBB+ for levels above the 'non-investment' status that shows S and P's has a more positive of China. Moody's Investors Service has rated China favorably five notches above the non investment status.

Macro & Micro Economics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Macro & Micro Economics - Essay Example Conditioning, if credible can be used for reducing the inflationary consequences of a resulting increase in aggregate demand from the post crisis deleveraging. Even after reducing the benchmark rate at zero, the Federal Open market Committee which sets policies tried to continue to add stimulus by pledging to keep the interest rates low through 2014. Evan continues to make explicit promises by putting forth that the Federal Reserve would continue to tighten the policy until and unless the rate of unemployment came down below 7% and inflation breached at 3% (Aki, â€Å"Bloomberg†). Evans and the economists Jonas Fisher, Jeffrey Campbell and Alejandro Justiniano mentioned in an article presented by the Brookings Institution in Washington that forward guidance in the statements of monetary policies have been effective in increasing yields through Corporate Bonds and Treasury Notes since the beginning of the global financial crisis (Aki, â€Å"Not Voting Member†). Reference of article to theory- Monetary Growth and Inflation The article above is linked to the theories in macroeconomic. There is strong empirical evidence which shows a direct relationship between money supply in the economy and long term price inflation for the rapid increases in the supply of money within the economy. This is the reason why governments rely strongly on monetary policies for controlling inflation. Economists have identified two links between the supply of money in the economy and the rates of inflation (Hetzel, p.205-206). Firstly an increase in the supply of money, if not trapped within the financial system as being excess reserves can lead to the sustained increase in the level of real production rather than inflation after a recession when many of the nation’s resources remain underutilized. Moreover, they have emphasized on the changes in the velocity of money, which is the ration between the nominal gross domestic product and the supply of money which leads to an increase in the money supply can bring about an exaggerated effect on the growth of nominal gross domestic product (Hetzel, p.205-206). Researchers have suggested the use of conventional monetary policies which influences the macroeconomic factors by bringing about changes in the credit availability in the economy and also the rate of interest or the price of the credits. The monetary policies act upon the rates of interest and consequently the money supply too. The control in money supply through adjustment of interest rates control inflation rates in the economy. However, it is important that in such cases the real interest rates are considered and not the nominal interest rates. This is because the real value of a loan diminishes with inflation and simultaneously revenues in businesses and household incomes also rise with inflation. Thus the ability of payment of a loan increases with rise in inflation rates. However, researchers have also identified certain imitations with the use of monetary policies controlling inflation rates (Baumeister & Benati, p.5-7). In the 1990s inflation rates were extremely low, but this was not because of tight monetary policies. During the same

Motivation and Behavior Essay Example for Free

Motivation and Behavior Essay Motivation refers to the process that drives an organism to behave the way it does. Simply put motivation causes an organism to eat, sleep, and drink and individuals to participate in the activities they find satisfying. Motivation can separate people into two categories optimist and pessimist. Optimists are those looking for the good in situations and pessimists finding the bad. Motivational sources can be described as extrinsic and intrinsic. Extrinsic is the motivation that comes from outside of the individual. Intrinsic is the motivation of an individual that comes from within. Motivation affects an organism’s behavior. Dr. Whitbourne describes six theories in here article from psychology today; instinct, drive reduction, arousal, incentive, cognitive and self-determination. Motivation As defined by psychology.about.com, motivation is defined as the process that initiates, guides and maintains goal-oriented behaviors. Motivation is the psychological process that tells humans what to do. A motivation causes humans and other species to drink, eat, play, sleep and reproduce. Without motivation there would be no reason for accomplishing anything. Within the motivation process there are different factors with each individual. Motivation can come in the form of positive motivation and negative motivation. These motivating factors eventually lead to an emotional state within the individual. Generally motivation creates to type of individuals that society recognizes and relates with; optimist and pessimist. Optimistic is disposed to take a favorable view of events or conditions and to expect the most favorable outcome, (â€Å"Optimistic,†2012). These are the individuals who tend to have a positive outlook on life. In most cases these individuals are look for the good in every situation. From dictionary.com, pessimistic is pertaining to or characterized as the tendency to expect the worst and see the worst in all things. Pessimists are those individuals who see the worst in everything. Sources of Motivation Extrinsic/Intrinsic Extrinsic is defined by dictionary.com as, not essential or inherent; being outside a thing; outward or external; operating or coming from without, (Extrinsic, 2012). Extrinsic motivation is simply that, things that motivate from the external. When looking at individuals who have extrinsic motivation, they tend to not enjoy certain activities, (Huitt, 2011). They tend to be a reward based group and need affirmation from an outside source. Throughout society many people can be found to fit this category of motivation. As shown a person who only writes poems to be submitted to poetry contests as well as a person who does not like sales but accepts a sales position for the amount of money he/she will make, (Psychology, n.d.). Intrinsic is defined by dictionary.com as, belonging to a thing by its very nature; of or relating to the essential nature of a thing; inherent, (Intrinsic, 2012). If extrinsic is from the external, the intrinsic is from within the individual. These individuals to things because it please them and they find the activity enjoyable, (Psychology, n.d.). These people are not concerned as much with what the outside world or society thinks. They are motivated from within. An example shows, playing chess because the individual enjoys effortful thinking, and a person reading a non-fiction book because they are curious about the topic, (Psychology, n.d.). Motivation and Behavior From an article written by Susan Drauss Whitbourne, Ph.D. motivation as the cause of behavior is examined. In her article Dr. Whitbourne discuss insights to explain the complexity of behavior. The instinct theory as Dr. Whitbourne refers to it as the biological set instincts that organisms have, (â€Å"Motivation: the whys of behavior,† 2011). These factors are what tell organisms to do in order to survive, such as the lion hunting the antelope or a flock of geese migrating south for the winter. The second she describes is the drive reduction theory, (â€Å"Motivation: the whys of behavior,† 2011). This theory talks about organisms and how they will try to just ensure that their needs are met and not look for anything else, (â€Å"Motivation: the whys of behavior,† 2011). The article goes on to discuss how critics argue that if this theory were true no one would do thinks that were considered risky, (â€Å"Motivation: the whys of behavior,† 2011). Third Dr. Whitbourne discusses the arousal theory, (â€Å"Motivation: the whys of behavior,† 2011). Arousal theory is the opposite of drive reduction, (â€Å"Motivation: the whys of behavior,† 2011). Arousal theory is the motivation which drives individuals to increase their stimulation and seek out things that are exciting and outside just what the individual needs, (â€Å"Motivation: the whys of behavior,† 2011). Dr. Whitbourne goes on to discuss 3 more theories such as the incentive theory, cognitive theory, and the self-determination theory, (â€Å"Motivation: the whys of behavior,† 2011).. Summary Motivation is the process that drives individuals to behave the way they do. Individuals are categorized into two, optimist and pessimist. There are multiple sources of motivations that can be describe as either extrinsic or intrinsic. Whatever the source, individuals are either motivated from within or the world around them. In an article written by Dr. Whitbourne, six theories are described which examine the â€Å"why of behavior.† References Extrinsic. (2012). In Dictionary.com Retrieved from http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/intrinsic Huitt, W. (2011). Motivation to learn: An overview.Educational Psychology Interactive. Valdosta, GA: Valdosta State University. Retrieved from http://www.edpsycinteractive.org/topics/motivation/motivate.html Intrinsic. (2012). In Dictionary.com. Retrived from http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/intrinsic Motivation: the whys of behavior. (2011, October). Fullfillment at Any Age, (), Retrieved from http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/fulfillment-any-age/201110/motivation-the-why-s-behavior Optimistic. (2012). In Dictionary.com. Retrieved from http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/optimistic Psychology and society. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.psychologyandsociety.com/motivation.html

Science of Flavors :: essays research papers

Abstract:  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The flavor of food is what compels us to eat certain items. The taste sensations of different food combinations are at time mesmerizing. The restaurant industry has long been based on tending to the need of the consumer, feeding them good food. As economic times change, there are more appearances of chain casual dining restaurants. Consequently, the change brought a need of consistency of food products. Food science is a field where the study of people and food. The field has been contributing immensely to the successful expansion of the chain restaurant industry. The science of flavor has proven to be extremely marketable and flavorful. Science of Flavors And the Restaurant Industry   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The restaurant industry has long been established on the service of good food. Stand alone restaurants bringing the fine and new flavorful cuisines are very hard to come by nowadays. The massive trend of chain casual dining restaurants is in effect, and it does not seem to be slowing down. Since the chain system of restaurants works on brand recognition there is a standard system for every aspect of the restaurants niche that each establishment must follow. In addition, since these casual dining establishments work on a volume base commission, they need to produce good food, fast; furthermore, each dish needs to be the same every time. The consistency of the food throughout every chain establishment produces a problem in the casual dining nation, which is why all the franchises are turning to the science of food; in other words, food science. Food science has been producing phenomenal feats throughout the restaurant industry. The study of food and people’s perception of flavors has proven to be very marketable throughout the casual dining sector. The Science of Flavors First and foremost an diminutive understanding of flavor is necessary. Flavor is a complex mixture of sensory input of the food being eaten. The composed sensory input is: taste (gustation); smell (olfaction); tactile sensations; and visual sensations. Although people may use the word â€Å"taste† to mean â€Å"flavors† in the strict sense it is applicable only to the sensation arising from specialized taste cells in the mouth. Those taste cells are the taste detectors distributed all throughout the tongue. The taste detectors are specialized configurations commonly referred to as taste buds. (Margolskee, Smith 2001) Usually the first step in food consumption and much of food’s flavor is perceived through the olfacotory impression on the mind.

Alternative Method for Onsite Sewage Disposal

WASTEWATER TREATMENT PLANT DESIGN Term Paper 1 ALTERNATIVE METHOD FOR ONSITE SEWAGE DISPOSAL (29 Pages) March 2nd, 2012 TABLE OF CONTENTS 1. INTRODUCTION3 2. INFORMATION4 3. 1 Soil Absorption System in a septic tank4 3. 2 Soil Failures6 3. 3 Soils7 3. ALTERNATIVE METHODS FOR ONSITE TREATMENTS 8 AND SYSTEMS OF DISPOSALS 4. 4 Alternative method for soil treatment and disposal systems8 4. 5 Alternative treatment devices13 4. 6 In-house alteration of wastewater16 4. REGULATION OF ALTERNATIVE ONSITE SYSTEMS21 5. CONCLUSION22 6. 7 Funding of existing state onsite programs22 6. Operation and maintenance22 6. 9 Failing systems23 6. 10 Water Conservation24 References25 List of Figures26 1. 0 INTRODCUTION Nearly 30% of the homes in the United States of America depend on onsite wastewater treatment and disposal. This percentage remained constant for the last two decades and is also estimated to be constant in the coming future. It is estimated that up to one half of the septic tanks do not perf orm perfectly or may even fail even before their expected life. The risk of contamination of ground water and surface water quality increases with the failing of an onsite system.These result in degradation of water quality, health hazards, outbreak of diseases and lowered property values. Nationally septic tank leachate is the most frequently reported cause for the contamination of the ground water and consumption of contaminated ground water is responsible for over 50% of all reported outbreaks of waterborne diseases. Lack of affordable and effective onsite sewage disposal is a national issue. Less than 35% of the land in the United States of America is suitable for conventional septic tank soil absorption systems.These limitations and requirements have resulted in developing many alternatives for onsite technologies. This study discusses recent research on alternative onsite technologies. 2. INFORMATION 2. 1 Soil Absorption System in a Septic Tank The soil absorption system in a septic tank is one of the most common treatment systems onsite. This soil absorption system consists of a septic tank, a water tight container which is usually large, and a field of soil absorption. It also contains a series of perforated pipes that are buried in the soil. This system performs two functions, the treatment of wastewater and the disposal.The septic tank provides biological treatment by removing large solids and greases. Further treatment followed by the final disposal is provided by the soil absorption field. A septic tank is made up of a large container which is water tight (usually 1000gal). This container is generally buried slightly below the ground and also adjacent to the building to which it is serving. The greases and fats are collected in a layer on the upper liquid surface whereas the solids settle to the bottom of the tank. For the liquid to be discharged from the layers between the solids and the scum, an outlet is constructed in the septic tank.For approx imately every three years, the solids and scum are pumped from the tank. The treatment or stabilization of contaminants in the wastewater are treated by anaerobic microorganisms. This process occurs in the absence of O2. The soil absorption field consists of a series of pipes. These pipes are placed in trenches which are usually 2 to 3 feet wide and 2 to 4 feet deep. These pipes are perforated. The pipes are placed in Gravel and it is covered with top soil. The effluent from the septic tank first flows down to the pipes, then out of the perforations and finally is absorbed by the adjacent soil.The microorganisms in the soil below the trenches absorb and treat the organic material in the effluent. This treated water percolates into ground water or may also evaporate. 2. 2 FAILURES The main causes for the failure of the system are * The water table being very high. * The surrounding soil being impermeable. * Improper Construction * Lacking in maintenance of the tank. The failed system can usually be defined as * When sewage effluent is collected on the surface of the ground. * When the wastewater is no longer being evacuated by the toilets or drainage systems.Main Causes for these types of Failures * Clogging of the Soil under the system * The rising of the water table to very close of the distribution trenches. * The soil being impermeable. The Clogging of the soil is being considered as the unavoidable occurrence for a soil absorption system over a period. The design of the system, the maintenance of the tank, and the characteristics and amount of wastewater being treated greatly influence the rate of clogging. The immediate clogging of the soil is also occurred when proper pumping of the septic tank is neglected.If the soil under the field of soil absorption is too permeable, even then the system failures occur. If this happens then the effluent directly enters the ground water without proper treatment in the soil. In this case it becomes more difficult to id entify, as there are no problems that can be found out or noticed in the disposal system. A sample of ground water may be taken to detect such failures. 2. 3 SOILS The ultimate disposal of the liquid part of the wastes treatment process depends mainly on soil for all onsite systems. The soil also provides the ultimate treatment in most of the onsite systems.The wastewater is made free of contaminant particles when the contaminants pass through soil by contact with the aerobic microorganisms and also absorption to soil particles. The pathogens and contaminants are completely removed from the wastewater if it travels slowly through 2 to 4 feet of unsaturated soil. If at all the wastewater is travelled quickly the treatment is not done completely and resulting in the contamination of the underground water. Even if the wastewater travels too slowly the saturation of the soil takes place aerobic treatment will also not take place.The time at which the wastewater is to be passed should be determined by the soil permeability. It is mainly affected by texture and structure of the soil. The texture of the soil means the physical nature of the soil with respect to portions of sand, silt and clay. The travelling of the water depends on the particle size of the soil. It travels quickly through the coarse soil and slowly in clayey soils. Soils whose structure is stable will allow more water to pass through than that of those soils whose structure is unstable.The kind of soil absorption system that has to be determined is mainly based on the characteristics of the soil. 3. 0 ALTERNATIVE METHODS FOR ONSITE TREATMENTS AND SYSTEMS OF DISPOSALS The conventional septic tank absorption system is used in less than 35% of the land in the United States of America. There are some areas that are not suitable for the conventional absorption system because of the soil. For the past several years alternative methods to the conventional method of absorption system have been provided to de velop effective sewage treatment to those soils which were formerly not suitable.Most of the alternative methods are still in the experimental stage. This chapter describes the ongoing status of the research being carried out on a number of alternative methods to the conventional septic tank-soil absorption system. The alternative systems for the soil absorption system are divided into three groups * Alternative method for soil treatment and disposal systems * Alternative treatment devices * Alteration of wastewater in-house 3. 1 ALTERNATIVE METHOD FOR SOIL TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL SYSTEMS The main factor in identifying the onsite sewage treatment and disposal systems is the soil.For this reason, the research has been primarily focused mainly on developing alternative soil absorption methods. Five alternatives to the standard soil absorption field are described here. Of which three of them are the alternative methods of distributing effluent to standard soil absorption field, a mound or fill system, and an evapotranspiration system. Soil Clogging over time is an unavoidable occurrence for soil absorption systems. This problem is caused by the manner in which effluent Is delivered to the system.The flows occur to a soil absorption field when the effluent is displaced from a septic tank by a water use event in the household. Such low volumes and irregular waste utilize only a small portion of the disposal trench area on all times. These cause clogging, progressive creeping failure and localized overloading. The following figure illustrates how the progressive failure reaches a state of equilibrium along the entire absorption field with respect to the time. To provide more uniform application of effluent over the complete trench area two systems have been developed. The two systems are Dosing system and Pressure Distribution systems.DOSING SYSTEMS The dosing systems are present in the dosing tank. These dosing systems store the pretreated effluent and apply large d oses to the soil absorption field by gravity, siphon or pump at regular intervals of time. The surface of the soil is returned to an unsaturated condition by allowing the system to drain. The soil type determines the frequency of dosing. It usually ranges from one to four doses per day. EALUATION: The specific cause for soil clogging is not well understood, and some question still exists whether dosing is effective or not. Clogging still occurs in dosing systems as well as standard systems.More research and careful tracking of installed systems is necessary. An additional dosing chamber and pump adds up to approximately $880 to $1000 to the price of the standard system. REGULATORY STATUS: Washington State Guidelines for dosing systems have been issued. There are 57 systems on the state inventory. PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS Pressure distribution systems like the dosing system store pretreated effluent for periodic distribution to the soil absorption field. Diameters of small radiu s are used to pump the effluent over the entire absorption field. The pressure distribution system provides the most uniform distribution.Such accurate distribution avoids the localized overloading problems. The additional benefit of dosing are also achieved with the Pressure Distribution system. EVALUATION: The Pressure distribution systems are mostly suitable for permeable and coarse textured soils. This is because they improve the potential for treatment by the distribution of the effluent evenly over the entire absorption field and reduce the potential for direct bypass of effluent to the ground water. The installation cost, operational cost and the maintenance cost are much more in a pressure distribution system when compared with the gravity system.This is because of the additional cost of the dosing chamber and pumps which approximately adds to $800 to $1000 to the price of a standard system. The cost of installation of the absorption field is similar to that of the standard field. It is obvious that these systems result in the most effective treatment in coarse textured soils, but it is not clear whether or not the life of the absorption field is long lasted in fine grained soils. REGULATORY STATUS: Washington State Guidelines for pressure distribution Systems have been issued (revised SEPT 1984).There are a total of 52 systems on the state inventory. ALTERNATING DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS The effluent is not stored by the alternating distribution systems. Instead the disposing of the pretreated effluent is carried out between two separate absorption fields. These absorption fields are constructed in close proximity and the fields are usually alternated annually. This allows the unused field to drain and aerobic decomposition of clogging mat to take place. The residential systems are generally constructed with two equal fields each containing 75% to 100% of the required surface area.EVALUATION: Washington alternative system guidelines require each component field to contain 100% of the area required for a single field. In a conventional system it is also required that the soil meet its standards. Hence the installation cost is more and the benefit received is the increased life time of the absorption field. REGULATORY STATUS: Washington state guidelines have been issued. There are two systems on the state inventory. MOUND OR FILL SYSTEMS This is a pressure distribution system installed in a mound constructed on top of the natural soil.Such systems are used when the GWL is too close to the surface or when the soil is not permeable enough or is too permeable. This mound is constructed of a coarse grained material usually sand through which the pretreated effluent travels before it reaches the original surface of the soil. Vegetable cover and top soil are used to cover the mound. Usually the soil absorption field is constructed below the top soil. The mound system is placed on the top of the top soil layer and thus gains the additional be nefit of this soil layer for the treatment.The treated effluent is dispersed over laterally through the top soil until it is absorbed into the sub soil. EVALUATION: These mound systems have emerged as an effective alternative for sites whose soils are unsuitable. Anyhow construction of a mound requires the transportation of large amounts of new soil to the site and the mound must be carefully designed and constructed properly in order to see that no problem occurs in the future. The design and installation cost of the mound system can cost between $4000to$8000. Therefore this the last option for installation.REGULATORY STATUS: Final state guidelines have been issued for the mound systems and there are 257 systems on the state inventory. EVAPOTRANSPIRATION BEDS The evapotranspiration beds discharge the wastes into the air instead of the soil. The use of such beds is not allowed in those areas where the annual evaporation is more than the annual precipitation. These beds are lined wit h water tight materials such as plastic, filled with crushed rock and sand, and again covered with top soil. Perforated pipe lines are used distribute pretreated effluents to the bed as in the conventional absorption system.EVALUATION: Testing of 17systems took place in Easter Oregon and that revealed out poor performance. All but one of the systems developed holes in the linear. They allowed the untreated effluent to enter the ground water. REGULATORY STATUS: An experimental system permit would be required for installation of the evapotranspiration beds. 3. 2 ALTERNATIVE TREATMENT DEVICES The focus has mainly been on the disposal systems in an onsite research in the USA. However there has been some interest in reducing the clogging of soil absorption fields. This has led to in improving the quality or purity of the effluent from treatment devices.If the purity of the effluent is improved then the clogging in coarse unstructured soils is reduced. There are 2 devices in the pretreatm ent of wastewater, the septic tank and the aerobic tank. To provide an extra treatment to the effluents from septic tank and aerobic tank several technologies have been developed. Some of the devices are capable enough to produce the effluent suitable for surface discharge. However the surface discharge is not allowed in all states and so these types of systems can be utilized to improve the performance of the soil absorption field. AEROBIC TANKSAn aerobic tank is a watertight container which runs on the mechanism where the wastewater comes in contact with air. The decomposition of waste products takes place when they are in contact with the air. The separation of the solids and greases take place and the liquid waste is discharged into a disposal system. The solids must be pumped from the final chamber regularly. Aerobic tanks can reduce the BOD by 85% to 98% under ideal conditions and also reduce the Suspended Solids by 40% to 80%. A septic tank reduces BOD by 25% to 65% and suspe nded solids by 40% to 80%.EVALUATION: Aerobic treatment devices are sensitive to any changes in the quantity of wastewater or the characteristics of the wastewater they are treating. In normal conditions, the effluent has not been shown to be of a higher purity than the septic tank effluent and the purity of the septic tank changes vastly with time. These are mechanical devices which require skilled men to operate it and also to maintain it. Since the aerobic tanks need regular inspections and frequent maintenances, they are best suited for conditions where the management is done by Wastewater Management District or utility.REGULATORY STATUS: Final state guidelines were issued in 1975 for the aerobic devices. No systems are illustrated on the state inventory. ANAEROBIC FILTERS These filters are mainly designed to provide secondary treatment to septic tank effluent before they discharge to a soil absorption system. The filter is a water tight container which is filled with crushed ro ck or other soil type which will support microbial growth. Effluent is treated when it comes in contact with anaerobic organisms on the surfaces of the anaerobic filters. EVALUATION: Development is still in the experimental stage for small residential systems.It is reported that anaerobic filters can reduce the BOD of septic tank effluent by 30% to 80% and can further reduce fecal coliform by 43% to 95%. No additional source of energy is required and the maintenance cost is almost similar to that for a septic tank. Cost Estimations are not available. More research and field tests are needed. REFULATORY STATUS: No state guidelines are there for anaerobic filters and an experimental system permit would be required. SAND FILTERS Many sand filter designs have been installed on an experimental basis for residential onsite use.Sand filters operate by directing pretreated effluent into or onto a layer of sand allowing it to drain through the sand where aerobic decomposition of the wastewat er takes place and collecting the filtrate in a perforated pipe at the bottom of the filter. Filters may be constructed either above or below the ground. The systems that are constructed below the ground can be contained in a water tight vault or can also be uncontained in direct contact with the surrounding soil. Some filters send back part of the filtrate through the filter for further treatment. The liquid filtrate is ultimately disposed of in a soil absorption field.Sand filters are capable of producing very high quality of effluent with reported BOD and SS reductions of 99% and 97%, respectively. EVALUATION: The Oregon Department of Environmental quality has conducted extensive research into the use of sand filters for residential use. Their research has shown good success at improving the ability of soils to accept and treat effluent on sites with soils that are not acceptable for the conventional systems. In cases where the soil conditions are very poor, an installation of sa nd filter is made to treat the effluent coming out of the septic tank before the disposal in the mound system.However this system might cost up to $1000. REGULATORY STATUS: Washington State interim guidelines for sand filters have been issued and are currently being revised. 3. 3 IN-HOUSE ALTERATION OF WASTEWATER The main factors that are taken into consideration when designing onsite treatment and disposal systems are the quantity and quality of the wastewater being treated. These factors also have an important effect on the long term performance of those systems. Wastewater is created and its characteristics are determined by the water use habits of the residents belonging to the household.The quality of the wastewater is also influenced by the water use habits of the residents. One technique of altering the waste stream is one technique considered to permit onsite treatment and disposal on sites with less suitable soils. HOUSEHOLD WASTEWATER CHARACTERISTICS Household wastewater c haracteristics vary widely with the time of day and the season. Wastewater from residential houses is affected by high utilization of water like the day of wash, holidays and guests and periods of no flow in times of vacations. Below are given the values of average residential wastewater.Typical household wastewater is 99. 9% water by weight, and 0. 02% to 0. 03% suspended solids, plus minor amounts of other soluble and insoluble organic and inorganic substances. Wastewater also contains bacteria, viruses and other microorganisms from the digestive tract, respiratory tract and skin. Some of the physical and chemical characteristics of wastewater produced by various activities are listed below. TABLE 3. 1 HOUSEHOLD WASTEWATER – PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL COMPOSITION ACTIVITY| BIOLOGICAL OXYGEN DEMAND| SUSPENDED SOILS| Kitchen activities| 42%| 27%| Bathing and showering| 6. %| 6. 8%| Clothes washing| 29. 9%| 31. 3%| Toilet Flushing| 21. 8%| 35. 8%| TOTAL| 100%| 100%| WASTE SEGREGATI ON Toilet flushes or black wastes contribute approximately 35% of the water, 36% of the suspended solids, and 68% of the total nitrogen to the household waste stream. The volume and pollutant load of remaining water which is called grey water is reduced if the toilet wastes are treated separately without using water. VAULT PRIVIES Vault privies and holding tank systems store the waste products from toilet in a storage vessel which is water tight and is pumped out periodically?EVALUATION: The storage systems are generally used to correct a temporarily correct a failing system but not always applicable to residential uses. REGULATORY STATUS: Washington state guidelines have been issued and the use is restricted to non-residential applications. INCINERATING TOILETS The use of natural gas and electricity is made to incinerate toilet wastes in the incinerating toilets. In these toilets the solids are reduced to ash and the liquids are evaporated and vented to the outside. Later the ash i s disposed of at regular intervals of time.EVALUATION: Incinerating systems consume energy either from electricity or from natural gas and should go through a fifteen minutes treatment cycle after every use. Five to Six units installed in Kentucky in the early 1970s had been abandoned by 1978 because of high operation costs, associated doors and frequent problems of repairs. REGULATORY STATUS: Washington state interim guidelines for incinerating toilets were issued. BIOLOGICAL TOILETS Biological toilets treat human wastes by composting. Composting takes place under specific conditions of temperature, moisture, exposure to Oxygen and the availability of carbon and nitrogen.This process of composting usually results in a relatively dry end product which is free from harmful components. This end product is intended for disposal as a soil additive. To assure successful treatment of wastes, proper maintenance of design and operation of composting toilets within the composting chamber. Th ere are two common designs used, (1) small units where the entire unit is on the floor in the toilet room and (2) large toilets where the composting unit is below the floor. EVALUATION: Even though they have been in use for many years, the design of composting or biological toilets is still evolving.Field testing in the United States of America has resulted in some problems. Two studies sponsored by U. S. EPA (Environmental Protection Agency) and conducted in California and Oregon report generally poor performance including certain problems like excess buildup of liquid, problems caused by insects and rodents, structural failures and incomplete treatment of wastes. For certain units to operate efficiently an added heat and forced ventilation are required. REGULATORY STATUS: No existing regulations in the state of Ohio. GREYWATER TREATMENT AND DISPOSALGrey water contains concentrations of organic materials, solids, nutrients and fecal bacteria which require treatment to that of the t otal household wastewater. A significant amount of wastewater created can be reduced by segregating the waste. EVALUATION: Even though the conventional treatment and disposal methods are required, the segregation of black wastes allows the size of the system to be reduced significantly. Septic tank size can be reduced by 50% and the capacity of the soil absorption field can be reduced by 40%. REGULATORY STATUS: Guidelines for grey water treatment are included in the state regulations. . REGULATION OF ALTERNATIVE ONSITE SYSTEMS To prevent the spread of diseases, the need for regulation of onsite sewage disposal became necessary. However specific construction requirements are many times difficult to justify in terms of preventing the spread of diseases. This difficulty led to vast differences in policy and allowed regulations to be influenced by political purposes as well as public health purposes. A national survey of existing state codes in 1947 found considerable variation in requi rements for onsite sewage disposal systems (Weibel, 1947, in Kreissl, 1982a).These findings prompted the U. S. Public Health Service to become involved, and in 1957 they published the Manual of Septic-Tank Practice. A survey of all the states was conducted in 1971 and showed that most state codes had incorporated the recommendations of the manual (Patterson, 1971, in Kreissl, 1984). Since that time, states have been revising their codes in response to local experience and new research. In 1980 the U. S. Environmental Protection Agency published a Design Manual for Onsite Wastewater Treatment and Disposal.Newer or â€Å"alternative† onsite treatment technologies are more complex than that of the conventional systems and incorporate pumps, recirculation piping, aeration, and other features (e. g. , greater generation of residuals) that require ongoing or periodic monitoring and maintenance. However, the current management programs of most of the jurisdictions do not typically o versee routine operation and maintenance activities or detect and respond to changes in wastewater loads that can overwhelm a system. In addition, in many cases onsite system planning and siting functions are not linked to larger ground water and watershed protection programs.The challenge for onsite treatment regulators in the new millennium will be to improve traditional health based programs for ground water and surface water protection while embracing a vigorous role in protecting and restoring the nation's watersheds. 5. CONCLUSION There are important problems not addressed by existing regulations 5. 1 Funding of Existing State Onsite Programs The Department of Social and Health Services currently has 1. 8 staff statewide for the entire onsite program. Department officials estimate that 4 to 5 full time staff would be required to adequately perform the state’s duties (Lenning, 1987). . 2 Operation and Maintenance The U. S. EPA (Environmental Protection Agency) Design Man ual for Onsite Wastewater Treatment and Disposal Systems (1980) suggests that there are three distinct phases in the life of onsite systems that required to be controlled. * Installation * Operation * Maintenance The above phases of installation, operational cost and maintenance cost cause problems that may result in system failures that threaten public health or damage the environment. Guidelines for alternative and experimental systems require some monitoring of operation as mentioned in Section 4. 2.The difference between using an onsite system and being connected to a municipal sewer is usually not known to the home owners. Careful operation and careful maintenance is required for an onsite system to function properly. For example, there might be a serious effect on the operation of an onsite system with the use of garbage grinders or excessive water volumes (Refer Chapter 3. 3). An important maintenance function for most of the systems is pumping of septic tank. If this is not done properly it may result in the rapid failure of the soil treatment and disposal system (Refer Chapter 2. 2).Special operation and maintenance requirements are present in most alternative systems so that they can function properly. As of now there are no statewide requirements for operation and maintenance of conventional or alternative onsite systems. There are two possibilities to control the onsite system operation and maintenance. * Regular Inspection and documentation of maintenance * Community or regional wastewater management districts REGULAR INSPECTION AND DOCUMENTATION OF MAINTENANCE To adequately protect public health and the environment regular maintenance of the onsite wastewater systems is required.In some areas, the local governments require the property owners to provide local health authorities with evidence that their wastewater system is being operated and maintained properly. Inspections are conducted by health officials or licensed individuals, such as plumbe rs who are well trained and also are certified to carry out inspections. COMMUNITY OR REGIONAL WASTEWATER MANAGEMENT DISTRICTS In the previous days onsite wastewater systems were considered temporary solutions until one of the areas were sewered. From then they have become an important wastewater treatment practice for many areas.The induced and often dramatic growth can be reduced with onsite system in low density areas. With the help of an onsite system the high costs for the construction of the traditional centralized sewer and treatment systems can also be reduced. The degradation of the ground water and the environment can be avoided if the management district sees that the maintenance of the onsite systems within the district is functioning properly or not. In some states wastewater management districts have been formed using a combination of alternative including individual and communal systems. . 3 FAILING SYSTEMS The repairs are usually difficult when a system fails because of its high repairing cost. The health officials find it difficult in the issues of failing systems. They are difficult to detect the cause of the failure and are even more difficult rectify the defect or to repair it. There are two regulatory problems, related to alternate systems that arise when a system fails. * If there is not enough land to construct an approved replacement system then a failing system may be located on this lot.If there is flexibility in the guidelines for the application of an alternative system or replacement systems, then this could allow people to improve their wastewater treatment system even if they are not able to meet all applications. * The Property owner not being able to afford the cost of an approved replacement system Some funding assistance is required to help low income householders to rectify the onsite system deficiencies. For example if the failing system is located on soil that is not suitable for a conventional system, an alternative syste m may be required.The installation cost and operational cost are very high for alternative systems. 5. 4 WATER CONSERVATION The advantages of water conservation on the treatment of soil and disposal systems are described in section 3. 3. Some of the advantages of water conservation are. * The performance of soil absorption system is increased. * Savings in energy costs * Potential for correcting a system which is failing Several applications for water conservation to regulate to onsite regulations are: * Regulations allow for soil-absorption field sizes to be decreased when it can be shown that low water use fixtures require a decrease.However some officials might be hesitant to permit the decreases in soil absorption field size fearing that the occupants in future might install non efficient fixtures and cause the system to fail. * Water conservation can be a cost effective method for correcting the failures of the system (Refer section 3. 3). There are currently no state guideline s for the application of this method. * Some states like Oregon and California have enacted a legislation which requires the installation of some water efficient fixtures in new construction (Puget Sound Water Quality, 1986). REFERENCES 1.Metcalf and Eddy (2002) Wastewater Engineering: Treatment, Disposal and Reuse, 4th Edition. McGraw-Hill, New York, New York 2. Syed R Qasim, Wastewater Treatment Plants- Planning, Design and Operation, Second Edition. 3. Wikipedia www. wikipedia. org 4. Environmental Protection Agency(EPA) FIGURES 1. Typical Septic Tank – Soil Absorption System 2. Septic Tank (Adapted from Environmental Protection Agency, 1980) 3. Soil Absorption Field Cross Section 4. Typical Dosing Chamber with Pump 5. Mound System 6. Aerobic Treatment Unit (Aerobic Tank) 7. Sand Filter 8. Biological Toilets